A dog in the Family - What you need to know

Before acquiring a puppy the prospective dog owner usually ponders number of option in order to arrive at the sort of the dog which would suit his or her particular life style. The first stage in the elimination process ought to be the very simple but all important question’ AM I the type of person who can cope with a dog? As one major canine charity in Britain says on a car-striker . a dog is for life not just for Christmas. The thought of owing a young faithful dog, eager to join the family on long walk across summer fields, can be persuasive but that is only one of the several aspects a young dog grows old youthful health will probably deteriorate; the rolling fields with grazing sheep’s have warning notices that dogs must be kept on a lead; and the sunshine of summer becomes the sleet of the winter.

Dog ownership entails more than the pleasant company of a faithful friend. It carries with it certain responsibilities, and a number of factors must be considered in order to balance the equation. Basically these factor relates to the economic circumstances and the availability of time space and energy.

Financial Consideration:
Apart from the entail outlay on buying a puppy, or dog, and the basic equipment, there are recurring cost which will considerably effect the household budge, depending on the size and the breed of dog. The largest is without doubt feeding; it is unrealistic to suppose even a miniature dog can be fed a nutritionally balanced diet from table scraps, and large dog will make an appreciable difference to the weekly food bill.

In Britain all the do owners are obliged by law to obtain a license. At present this negligible amount is under review, and it seems possible that increased licenses may be issued by local authorities.

Timing for the family Pet:
As a member of the household, the family dog is entitled to a certain amount of a regular attention, especially as a puppy and again in old age. He needs feeding and exercising every day, frequent grooming with comb and brush, with an occasional bath and care of nails and teeth.

Time must be set aside for the basic training of the puppy, for playing with the young dog and stimulating the activities of the middle aged, and for caring the older, perhaps ailing dog.

Some people seems to think that the possession of a large garden absolves them from exercising the family dog on all but the few occasions when plenty of time is available. As soon as they are let out at the kitchen door, most dog make a nuisance of themselves by disturbing the entire neighborhood for about ten minutes first thing in the morning or late at night by chasing the birds and the neighbor’s cat, or by rushing madly up and down braking at the dog next door. For the rest of the time they lie curled up on the back porch or, worse still, whine and yelp in an attempt to get back indoor. A dogs need organized exercise on the regular basis virtually everyday. Obviously there will be time when it is impossible to get him out of the constitutional, but provided that it does not happen too often, he will forgive. Neither does the exercise have to be of the same duration every day; some owners make a rod for their own backs by sticking so rigidly to the daily routine that the dog become master.

Dogs with long coats obviously need more grooming then short coated dogs. At the same time longer haired breed require different amount of time and effort the beautiful tresses of the graceful Afghan hound for example, will tangle irretrievably if neglected for more than two or three days while the much harsher coat of the Kesshound can do without the brush and comb routine for a couple of weeks provided that grooming is that literally skindeep.

Most dogs shed their dead hairs more or less continuously. Long hair do not necessarily cause greater problems in respect with clearing up hairs from short coated dogs penetrate carpets and furnishing fabrics and defy both vacuum cleaner and brush. The only breed which does not cause such aggravations are those which do not moult, such as Poodles and Bedlington Terriers, whose coat are stripped regularly at dogs parlors some people are allergic to dog hairs and coat dust; anyone with a known history of allergies such as asthma and eczematous skin lesions, should consult a doctor as the possibilities of the complications resulting from the purchase of the dog.

Feeding cost are undoubtedly the most important part of financial equation, while the time factor is minimal in respect of commercially prepared foods.

However cans and dogs packs have to be bought and carried home, which takes time and has to be remembered along with other shopping.

Additional Considerations:
Unless the dog has living quarters in an outside Kennel, the house will almost certainly show his presence. Hairs are not the only evidence. If he has a temporarily upset stomach he may not manage to reach the garden before he is sick or has diarrhea, both catastrophes on unpatented carpets.

Garden fences, other boundaries and gates should be sound enough to prevent the dog from escaping into neighboring gardens and into the road.

Above and beyond all other considerations, the potential owner must have a genuine desire for the companionship of a dog and the willingness to expend care, affection, and loyalty long after the cute puppy stage is past. Every year thousands and thousands of perfectly healthy animals are rejected as unwanted for one reason or another, many of them having to be painlessly destroyed by welfare societies or private veterinary practitioners. In 1982 alone more than 1000 Old English sheepdogs passed through the hands of the breed clubs Rescue organization when owners discovered too late that the television commercials cuddly dog required constant grooming of the coat.

Choice of Dog:
Having made the decision to acquire the dog a number of other questions must be settled before the actual purchase. The most important concern age, breed status, size, temperament, and sex.

Caring for your puppy in their first weeks

After selecting a puppy of your choice, when you take him home without his family and a guide on how to raise him, the puppy is sure to cry and whine throughout the first night. However, one can not blame him for this as it is obvious that the puppy would miss his mum and brothers and sisters.

The best way to calm down a crying puppy is to keep him in a soft, dry and safe place where he can sleep along with a cloth or toy that has the scent of his family on it.Do not run to your puppies side when he cries as if you do so he will continue with this habit. Instead place a sheet over the box as this will make the pup go to sleep at that time.

Puppies are naughty and tend to get into everything so ensure that all dangerous items such as marbles, wires, rocks or harmful plants do not come into his way.

A puppy ought to be stopped when he does something wrong and given rewards for good behaviors. However, the reproach must be sharp and short.You must show your puppy the right way of doing things. For example, if he is chewing on a magazine, take it away and give him a toy to chew on.Do not hit the puppy as he may become timid,assaultive or withdrawn.

The puppy must be feeded with dry food which is specially made for puppies. Do not give them high proteins or extra vitamin as they may prove to be hazardous for their growth. The puppy must be fed twice or thrice a day and they normally eat in fifteen minutes so after fifteen minutes remove the dish. After they have become ten to twelve weeks old, feed them twice a day, in the morning and at night.

All the above should help your puppy survive through the earlier weeks of his life without his family and the bond formed between you may prove to be life-long.

Police And Search Dogs

Highly trained dogs are used by police forces throughout the world, for patrol duties and crowd control. They are trained to track and pursue suspects and taught how to arrest law breakers. Police and security dogs patrolling building sites and vital installations are generally more effective in the prevention of crime than sophisticated burglar alarms.

Increasing drug abuse and acts of terrorism throughout the world have prompted police and other law enforcement agencies in many countries to examine critically the methods and systems employed to combat these evils. The Royal Air Force Police of Britain, with many years of experience in the use of police dogs, are leading the world in training dogs to detect narcotics, arms, ammunition, and explosives.

Since the late 196os, when a German Shepherd Dog and a Labrador were first successfully trained and employed as drug detectors, the Royal Air Force Police have undertaken the training of servicemen from other forces and countries in this specialized role. As terrorist activity throughout the world became an almost daily occurrence, successful trials established that dogs, and in particular German Shepherds, could be reliably trained to detect explosives. Subsequent training was extended to include the detection of arms and ammunition. Today, Royal Air Force Police search dogs, or sniffers as they are affectionately termed, are in service with the Royal Navy, the United States Navy and Air Force, and Her Majesty's Customs and Excise, and search-dog handlers have been trained for many other countries.

Police dog breeds:
Any good working dog is potentially suitable for search work. Most commonly used are German Shepherds, Labradors, and other gundog breeds such as German Shorthaired Pointers, Irish Water Spaniels, Flat-coated and Golden Retrievers, and English Springer Spaniels. There is a popular, but erroneous, theory that a drug dog becomes addicted to the drugs which it is trained to detect. Neither are 'bomb' dogs addicted to gelignite or TNT. The only Addition utilized in search-dog training is the dog's desire to retrieve. That Desire provides both the incentive and the drive necessary to train the dog. Although the actual conditioning process is simple,  great  patience  and understanding is required  in building  up concentration and agility in a potential search dog, which will have to adjust to many environments, such as airports and  aircraft,  docklands  and  cargo ships,  freight  sheds  with a multiplicity of cargo, private accommodation, and open fields and hedgerows.

Breed qualities:
Dogs selected for intense and painstaking training in the search field must display certain qualities before they can be accepted. Although certain breeds lend themselves to such duties, success depends upon selection of individual dogs within the breeds. Any potential dog must have had a sound environmental education, with less emphasis on obedience training and more on developing a bold, friendly and well-adjusted animal. In order to fulfill the requirements for detection work, a dog must have moderate to low body sensitivity, which means it takes knocks well, and moderate voice sensitivity, responding to various voice tones. It must also possess strong hunting and retrieving instincts, combined with boldness, physical strength, and potential agility.

Certain inherited characteristics make certain breeds ideal for search-dog training. The German Shepherd Dog, for example, fits in every way the image of a police dog, having medium body sensitivity. It is a popular breed from which correct selection can be made, and it is highly receptive to training. Retrieving is an acquired behavior pattern in the German Shepherd.

The Labrador Retriever is another successful search dog which normally causes no apprehension to the public. It has highly developed olfactory instincts, moderate to low body sensitivity and a more independent nature than the German Shepherd. Retrieving is an instinctive behavior pattern, and the Labrador usually has well-developed hunting instincts.

Individual characteristics of certain gun-dog breeds also have a bearing on selection for search-dog training. The Hunter, for example, should display determination to search without a visual incentive, and while it may not retrieve, it should have the desire to pick up. Similarly the Retriever should distinguish itself by its determination to fetch, and though it may require a visual incentive it should be eager to carry and be possessive with the prey.

Training search dogs:
As in all aspects of dog training, the training of search dogs, irrespective of the selected scents they are required to search for, must be based on firm yet sympathetic understanding of the workings of the canine mind. The success of specialized training lies in creating the correct incentive, harnessing the drive and channeling it to a useful end. Coupled with a sympathetic and thoughtful handler, the result is a highly effective team ready and able to assist the various law enforcement agencies in their fight against crime.
Dogs which are accepted for police-search duties undergo a fifteen-week course. During training the team spirit is forged between the animals and their handlers, based on patience, determination, integrity and affection on both sides. The outstanding factor is patience. All search dogs undergo a routine monthly veterinary inspection; from the age of seven years, when they are nearing the end of their working lives, they receive a thorough six-monthly inspection to ensure that they are still in good health and able to carry out their duties. At about eight years of age a search dog is retired, the handler usually buying the dog, which has justly earned a quiet retirement.

Gift dogs:
All dogs trained and used by the Royal Air Force Police have been donated by the public, man y dogs coming from leading show kennels. It is indicative of the high standards at these kennels, specializing largely in producing show stock, that first-class working dogs can emerge.

High standards for potential canine recruits are set by the Royal Air Force Police. Each year the Service requires some fifty trained dogs. To reach this figure two hundred dogs will be tested, approximately half of that number will enter training, and of these less than half again will qualify. The recruited gift dogs - German Shepherds and Gun-dogs - are all pedigrees aged between ten months and two and a half years. Potential gift dogs are examined by expert inspectors in their own homes. Such inspection is the first hurdle in this unique recruiting program, which aims to keep the worldwide police-dog strength of the Royal Air Force at around 8oo. After a dog's pedigree and age have been established, a strict acceptance test is carried out covering the animal's build, movements and general health. Sadly, even the finest family pet can sometimes prove unacceptable when judged against the high standards required.

Guide Dogs For The Blind

The sight of a guide dog leading its blind master or mistress through the bustle of busy streets is a source of pleasure and admiration. In and out of crowds through stores and markets boarding buses and trains, owner and dog stride out confidently together. Theirs a partnership shared by thousands of blind men and women throughout the world. It is now not new, record services of dogs being used as guide-companions in Pompeii and thirteen century today they may be seen in Norway and New Zealand on fifth Avenue and on Gorky Street.

Without its distinctive harness, usually white, there is noting to distinguish the trained guide for any other dog. Out side working hours, it romps as freely in the park as any other pet dog, and its just skilled at turning and appealing eye to any visitor who might offer a tidbit, but it is special. A guide dog is the eyes of the owner, the trusted companion, and the link outside world.

A potential guide dog must possess certain qualities. It should be intelligent and even-tempered, displaying neither nervousness nor indifference to sudden noise and obstacle. It must be strong and healthy, obedient yet capable of exercising judgment. Only a few breeds fulfill these conditions; in Britain where the Guide dog for the blind Association was establish in 1934. German Shepherded Dogs were long the preferred breed, but today half of trained guide dogs are Labradors. Crosses between Labradors and Golden Retrievers have also proved successful and the association maintains carefully selected bitches and stud dogs for breeding. Most guide dogs are bitches which are less domineering than males, both sexes are neutered before intensive training begins.

The puppy will stay with the foster family until it is ready to began the serious training; for Labradors and Labrador-Retrievers crosses, this usually occurs in their twelfth month. At this point the are returned to the training center. German Shepherds, Golden Retrievers and other breeds may take longer to mature. For a young dog, the transition is perplexing time. Life in kennels is very much more Spartan than the home comforts he or she has been used to, but the majority quickly adjust to the pack life. Others respond slowly to the reassurances of the handlers, and few are unable to settle; they are returned to their puppy Walkers or found per homes, as they lack the ability to adopt which ever guide dog must have. It requires a great deal of self-confidence to walk through strange streets and to pass potentially aggressive dogs.

Training Guide Dogs:
Once at the training center, work begins in quiet areas. On the long, straight walks to the park the dog is taught to trot ahead, not to walk at heel. Any attempt by the dog to anticipate a turn leads to the route being altered, to terminate at a different destination. At the end of the walk there will still be the pleasure of  game or a romp. In this way the dog learns that by accepting directions its walks will always be rewarded, and each outing becomes an exciting mystery tour.  

When the dog has begun  to think  ahead  and  anticipate, the next stage, the kerb drill is introduced. The dog is taught to indicate each road by stopping  at the pavement edge. This will give its future blind owner warning of a step down chance to listen carefully  for traffic. The guide dog is not always able to cope with modern traffic. The responsibility for choosing a safe time  to cross rests with its  master, and guide-dog users are advised by the training schools to obtain sighted help  at  busy  road  junctions.

With time,  training becomes  more intensive, quiet  side roads giving way to suburban areas,  with   people,   prams   and  shopping  trolleys   cluttering  the pavement Guide-dog trainers refuse to pass through gaps too small for their height and width, and slowly,  by constant repetition, the dog learns  to choose that path which will allow for its companion's bulk. Eventually it will forget that a choice ever existed and will automatically take  the  clear  space.  Artificial Obstacle courses are set up within  the grounds of the training school, where the dog learns  to avoid them  before being faced with increasingly difficult  hazards on the road. At  times  it  will have to leave the  pavement  to negotiate major obstructions, or  to retrace its steps  to  get  round  a temporary barricade.

In town it learns  to tackle  public  transport, lifts,  revolving doors, stores, escalators and  pedestrian crossings. With  practice and  yet more  practice the dog  becomes  foot-perfect. Visits to the  park and  the country become  rewards for hard working conditions  chosen to test it to the full. Finally, all the potential errors. a blind  person  might  make are re-created. The trainer dons a blindfold, and only after  successful guided   walks  through town  conditions will  he  be convinced  that the dog is fully trained and safe to be handed over to its new owner.

The  ultimate partnership:
The choice of the dog's future master  or mistress will already  have been made, with  compatibility, size, walking speed  and  work load having been  taken  into account, togther with  other  physical, temperamental and  social  factors.  The new owner must attend the training school for a four-week residential course to learn how to care for and use the dog. Under professional guidance, owner and Guide dog learn  to adjust to each  other  without outside distractions.

The training course is a concentrated repeat of the  dog's training. Quiet walks, on which owner and dog come to know and understand each other, give way to busier areas. Short outings stretch to  periods  of  up  to  two  hours' duration. Throughout, the trainer is on hand  to encourage, instruct and cajole. The unit, as a owner  and  dog  are  described, must  learn  from  mistakes and experience, like  mother and  toddler. A child  must  fall before  it ca n learn  to walk; the trainer's job is to ensure that the 'falls' in city streets full of traffic and there  hazards are not  too dangerous. For  the owner,  the course is demanding and nerve wracking. He or she may never before have walked without holding someone's arm or have ventured beyond their immediate neighborhood. It takes a great deal of courage, after years of dependency, to pick up the harness handle and give the very first command forward.

Over the weeks a bound between owners and the dog is forged which will last for years. Although there are doubts and moments of despair, mistakes grow fewer, and mutual confidence shows in the visible pride in enjoyment man and dog have in each other. Ownership of a guide means more than having the freedom to go anywhere at will. It enable a blind person to take his or her egual place among family and friends, join in social activities and gain a large measure of independence to such an extent that the blind owner can become the one to offer help instead of receiving it. The blind mother may offer to collect her neighbor's children from school or help with shopping in times of sickness. A husband  will not need the wife's guidance to go to the barber's. Young people can attend  classes, social gatherings  and  youth  clubs on their  own.   After   years  of  being  dependent  and   met  with  sympathy   and   social embarrassment, the blind  person as a guide-dog user becomes the object of envy as the possessor of something beautiful and enviable. The dog becomes an ice-breaker, and people who would not know how to start a conversation  with a blind person can do so with a simple query about the dog's age, name or breed. The  dog returns its owner to society.

I t is not the white harness that makes a guide dog special, for only special dogs are good enough to wear one. Once owner and dog become one unit, their progress is checked and  maintained  with regular  aftercare  visits and  health checks. The average working life of a guide dog is eight to nine years; it is then retired as an ordinary  pet animal, often into the same household, and replaced with a young guide dog. In Britain, the high costs of training and keeping guide dogs are met entirely  by charity.  This  in itself bears testimony  to the  high regard  in which guide dogs, the best of man's best friends, are held.

What are racing Dogs ?

Dog racing exists in several forms, each suited  to the strength, temperament and original  purpose  of the particular  breed.  With  the exception  of sled-dog racing and agility competitions, the principle is to provide a substitute quarry, and for this reason the most commonly  raced breeds are the sight hounds, of which  the Greyhound is the  best known.

Greyhound racing:
The  sport  of Greyhound racing  originated  in  the  United  States  early  this century  and has become popular  throughout the world. It came to Britain  in1926, when a dog called Mistley crossed the line ahead of the others in the very first  race,  at  Belle  Vue,  Manchester.  A  governing   body,  the   National Greyhound Racing Club, was formed, which licenses approved  stadiums  and maintains  a register of the dogs. All dogs raced on recognized tracks must run under  their  registered  name and must  be trained  by a licensed  trainer. These  rules and other  precautions protect the public from malpractice.  On unlicensed  or flapping  tracks, numerous in the Midlands and  the  North of England,  racing is more devious. The  same dog may run at different  tracks under several pseudonyms and may be trained by its owner, limiting the degree of control the stadium  can exercise. The  Greyhound is primarily a betting medium, and it may suit its owner better for it to lose than to win. Many dogs are run below their best form in order to keep 'a bit in hand' - just before the summer  holidays or Christmas, winning  times can improve  dramatically. Races take place on an oval track, and six dogs run at a time. The  distances vary from 300-yard (274m) sprints to goo-yard (823 m) marathons. Since the early days, times have improved greatly, and modern Greyhound stars achieve speeds  of up to 40 mph  (64 km /h).

Whippet racing:
This  form of racing is traditionally associated with the mining communities in England and was widespread  before the Greyhound boom. A straight track was divided into taped lanes, and instead of emerging from traps the whippets were thrown into the race by handlers known as slippers. There was no moving lure, with each dog racing to seize a sack or towel, waved beyond the finishing line by its owner. Today  this style of run ning, called  rag racing, exists only in the Potteries  in the North  of England.

Modern  whippet racing is a thriving  and popular amateur  sport  with little gambling or foul play. Handicapping may be on time or, more commonly,  by weight  when a one yard (1 m) advantage  for every  pound  (t kg) of weight difference is given to the lighter dogs. Scaled-down versions of greyhound traps are used, and the whippets chase a lure of rags wound in on an electric pulley. The distance varies from 140-200 yards (128- 183 m), but whippets are equally at  home on a greyhound  track over 300 yards (274 m). Bitches  are  usually preferred  to dogs of the same weight. Whippet  racing is popular  throughout the  world. In  most countries  it is confined  to pedigree  whippets,  but  in Britain  the traditional, specially  bred racing strain  is more numerous.

Lurcher meetings:
The lurcher, a type of dog rather than a specific breed, is sometimes defined as a gypsy  or  poaching  dog.  Usually  the  result  of  crossing  Greyhounds  with Terriers and  sheepdogs,  lurchers  are  enjoying  a considerable  vogue at  the present, and competitive racing is a feature at most of the lurcher shows which are staged in the summer months. Racing is to a lure, as in Whippet racing, and dogs are set loose by their owners. This results in rather uneven starts, which is proabably no bad thing, as most lurchers have had little or no schooling. up to ten dogs may be run at the same time. Lurchers are by definition supposed  to run within their capabilities to enable them to turn quickly on a hare, and racing is not a valid test. It also tends to make them hard-mouthed and spoil them for their  proper  hunting  work.

Hound trailing:
This  is the only racing based on scent and is confined to the fells of northern England. The highly specialized hounds, ofFoxhound origin, follow the line or drag of an extremely  odorous sack that has been pulled over several miles of moorland. The course, up to 10 miles (16 km) long, is laid out around a valley so that the hounds are in sight of the spectators most of the time. Once the hounds return  to the valley floor and are in view of their owners they are 'ragged' like Whippets to produce a finishing burst.  Betting on trail hounds can be heavy, but race meetings are governed by strict rules laid down by the various associations.

Sled-dog racing:
This is primarily a North American sport although  supporters of the Husky breeds in other parts of the world also practice it. Teams  of Huskies pull lightweight racing sleds (or wheeled buggies in warmer climates) over trails of varying lengths. Races may be as short as 10 miles (16 km) or as long as the 1169 miles (1881 km) Iditarod  race between Anchorage  and  Nome.

For  the  shorter  distances,  the  teams are  largely crossbred  Huskies  with Border  Collie, Setter, Greyhound or Coon Hound  blood to give speed. The true Huskies are at their best in protracted endurance events. Teams  of up to si xteen dogs are driven  by the 'musher' and can achieve an average speed of 20 mph (32 km/h); the record for the Iditarods race is fourteen days, more than So miles (129 km) a day.

Modern Working Dogs

In purely economic terms, the domestic dog is probably less important today than in the past. Despite this, different kinds of working dog serve a greater variety of useful roles in modern society than before.

Diversification is largely due to better understanding of animal husbandry and to the mechanism of genetic inheritances nineteenth century. These have made possible the systematic selective breeding of dogs in order to emphasize particular canine attributes and skills. Nowhere is this process more apparent than among sporting breeds; while the medieval huntsman had to choose from only four or five breeds of hunting dog, the modern field sportsman can choose from a vast array of hounds,  setters, pointers,  retrievers and terriers, each of which has been selectively bred to excel at one specialist aspect of hunting.

Selective breeding has also greatly improved dogs for herding livestock. Most dogs display a wolfish tendency to stalk, chase and drive large game animals, but in breeds like the Border Collie, certain elements of hunting behavior have been encouraged at the expense of others so as to produce a dog which can safely be used for controlling flocks of sheep.

Selectively-bred working dogs still need careful training before they can perform their particular task adequately. Recent advances in our knowledge of animal behavior and animal learning have made the job of dog trainers easier and more effective. Systematic training procedures, in conjunction with natural and artificially selected abilities and talents, have greatly altered the role of modern working dogs. Guide dogs for the blind (see page 24) is one outstanding example of the blend of careful selection and training in action, and similar programs are being successfully applied to hearing dogs for the deaf, and to dogs intended as aids to the physically handicapped.

New uses for domestic dogs are constantly being discovered. One novel use, which has recently received some attention, is the possibility of employing dogs to detect ovulation in cattle. The success of artificial insemination techniques depends to a large extent on the ability to discern when a cow is ovulating and therefore capable of conceiving. Present methods of detection are expensive and not always accurate; bulls perceive the correct timing by scent, and recent tests have shown that dogs with their sensitive noses are capable of the same level of discernment.

Guide Dogs
Police and Search Dogs
Racing Dogs

Dogs as Companions

The discovery at Ein Mallaha provides remarkably early evidence of the dog’s symbolic association with death. It also demonstrates the importance primitive man attached to one of the dog's outstanding qualities: its single minded loyalty and devotion to human beings. It seems likely that Stone Age people like their descendants, valued the emotional rewards of dog ownership as much.if not more than, the economic benefits.

The use of dogs and other animals solely for companionship is not confine to the modern affluent societies. The keeping of dogs as pets is widespread among relatively simple hunting and foraging societies. The Comanche Indians of North America possessed only two domestic animals, the dog and the horse. Horses were an indispensable part of the Comanche economy, yet the Indians regarded them entirely as useful objects. In contrast, dogs served little if any economic function, yet they were treasured as pets; warriors pampered them, carried them on horseback to prevent them from getting sore feet, and regarded the loss of one dog as far worse than the loss of several horses.

Even in societies where dogs were economically important, their role as a champions was frequently acknowledged. In Polynesia, where dogs were often eaten, it was common for particular puppies to be adopted and raised as pets by the inhabitants; usually such companion dogs were exempt from slaughter. In spite of so much evidence it is only since the 1970s that scientists have begun to research and evaluate the reasons why the companionship of dogs so important to the mental and physical health of highly industrialized societies.

Greyfriars Bobby

In Western cultures the dog is the proverbial symbol of fidelity, a reputation it has acquired by its habit of remaining faithful to one owner regardless of circumstances. One of the best known examples of this phenomenon was provided by a Skye Terrier called Greyfriars Bobby, which in 1858 joined his master's funeral procession and then remained in the vicinity of his grave in Greyfriars churchyard in Edinburgh until his own death fourteen years later. According to one account, Bobby also died lying stretched across his master's resting place and by special permission the grave was allowed to be opened, and the faithful little creature was interred beside him who he had loved so well. A statue and drinking fountain were later erected opposite the main gates of the churchyard in memory of Bobby.The story of Greyfriars Bobby is far from unique. European folklore recounts similar anecdotes, and as early as the first century AD the Roman writer Pliny described several comparable incidents, one of which created such a stir in Rome that it was inscribed in the National Records. In this case the dog belonged to a condemned slave and according to Pliny it could not be driven away from him in prison and when he had been flung out on the steps of lamentation would not leave his body, uttering sorrowful howls to the vast concourse of the Roman public around, and when one of them threw it food it carried it to the mouth of its dead master, also when his corpse had been thrown into the Tiber it swam to it and tried to keep it afloat, a great crowd streaming out to view the animal's loyalty.

If such an incident could produce a profound impression on the normally ruthless Roman populace, it is not difficult to imagine the superstitious awe and reverence it might have inspired in people belonging to earlier and less sophisticated cultures. For them, the animal's behavior would have conveyed not only a deep sense of loss but also an apparent desire to recall the dead person to life or to join him in death. Assuming a belief in some form of spiritual continuity after death, these people could have concluded that the dog's services were needed in the next world. Such an idea could gradually have developed into religious cults and practices in which the dog as sacred en tity came to represent a mediator between life and death as well as a spiritual guide and protector in the world beyond the grave. This theory would help to explain the ancient custom of burying people with their dogs. Archeologists have unearthed vast numbers of joint dog-human mortuaries from pre-Columbian locations in North and South America, and from Neolithic and Bronze age sites in Japan, China, Europe, the Near East and North Africa. The oldest of these graves was found at a site called Ein Mallaha in northern Israel. It contained the remains of an elderly human and a five-month-old puppy who had been buried together 12, ooo years ago. Perhaps in recognition of the bond which had joined them in life, the dead person's hand had been placed on the puppy's shoulder a timeless and eloquent gesture of friendship.

The Dog as Deity

In some societies the dog acquired a complex religious role. Probably the best known example is the ancient Egyptian jackal-headed god Anubis, often depicted as dog or even wolf-headed. Among other things Anubis presided over [the process of embalming or mummification, by which means the ancient Egyptians sought to ensure resurrection and eternal life for the deceased. In the guise of embalmer, Anubis played a central role in the cycle of death and rebirth, providing the key to the next world and guiding the souls of the departed on their final journey.

The concept of the dog as a spiritual intermediary between this world and the next is extraordinarily widespread. It recurs over and over again in myths, legends and religious beliefs in areas as far apart as Africa, New Zealand and North America. The same general theme predominates: that the help and g guidance of the dog is needed for a smooth transition from death to afterlife. It is not known why this association between dogs and death evolved independently in so many different cultures, but most authorities link it to the dog's (and jackal's) habit of consuming carrion. There could, however, be another less macabre interpretation.

Dogs as a Food Source

Mammals such as goats, sheep, pigs and cattle owe much of their success and popularity as domestic species to the fact that they or their products are edible and can be farmed on a commercially viable basis. Few people would regard the domestic dog in the same light, despite the fact that dog meat is edible and was or still is eaten in various parts of the world. The general reluctance to accept the idea of an early gastronomic relationship between man and dog may not be entirely the product of Western squeamishness. Wolves are primarily carnivorous, and grow and reproduce best on a diet of meat; had our ancestors wished to farm them for food, they would have been obliged to catch and kill other species to feed them on.

In spite of this obvious economic restriction, dogs were formerly raised for food on something approaching a commercial scale in certain regions of the globe notably southern China, Polynesia and Central America. This form of exploitation probably originated as a means of coping with chronic shortages of animal protein from more conventional sources and people were forced to fall back on dog-eating as a last resort. Significantly, cannibalism was also widely practiced in some of these areas, possibly for the same reason. Elsewhere, dogs were also eaten from time to time, but almost invariably the practice had important ritual connotations.

Domestic dogs treat people as members of their own species and by so doing compel people to regard them as part-human and to grant them privileges and rights which would normally be reserved for people. For this reason, dog- eating is ta boo in many cultures and viewed as a form of cannibalism. Yet ironically, the dog's affinity for humans may under certain circumstances provide a reason for eating it. Among certain North American Indian tribes, dogs were sacrificed and offered as food at ceremonies designed to cement political friendships; since the Indians were extremely fond of their dogs, the act of killing and offering them as food represented the supreme sacrifice, the ultimate and morally binding gesture of friendship.

In a number of other cultures, dog flesh was eaten as a prelude to warfare on the assumption that warriors would absorb the courage, nimbleness and sagacity of the animals. The eating of dogs had even greater symbolic significance in societies where dogs were revered as spiritual allies or totems. Within totemic cults it is believed that the flesh of the totem, eaten at the appropriate time and with correct ceremony, has magical rejuvenating qualities. The eating of dogs or wolves as part of religious or devotional ceremonies is possibly as ancient as totemism itself. Later the ritual probably acquired secondary importance compared with dog meat as a source of protein sustenance, and with shortages of alternative foods, the secondary role took precedence and evolved into the intensive use of dogs as food items. This trend finally culminated in special edible dog breeds, such as the Chow Chow and the native dogs of Polynesia, which were able to survive and reproduce on a largely vegetarian diet.

How Dogs can be Hunting Partners ?

In Paleolithic Europe and Asia Minor, people and wolves probably hunted similar types of game, chiefly species of large-hoofed animals. There is a popular notion that man's earliest economic use for the domestic wolf was as a hunting partner. Opinions differ as to the origin of this primitive hunting association, one being that the original domestication of wolves evolved from an older symbiotic exploitation of wild wolves by human hunters; Stone Age hunters might have taken advantage of the superior running and tracking abilities of wolf packs by following them to the kill and then depriving them of most of the carcass. Aboriginal hunters in central Australia have been observed occasionally exploiting packs of wild Dogs in precisely y this fashion, although the practice has not resulted in their domestication (or redomestication).

Conversely, it could be argued that the deliberate location and pursuit on hunting wolf packs would ha ve been more arduous and less rewarding for our ancestors than hunting independently. Wolves often hunt over enormous distances, and the majority of these expeditions fail to culminate in successful kills. Paleolithic hunters may have robbed wolves of their prey from time to time on an opportunistic basis, but on balance it is unlikely that they would have adopted this style of hunting as a way of life. Unfortunately, archeological records shed little light on the question of whether Stone Age people made use of tame or domestic wolves for hunting, and whether their efficiency as hunters was enhanced as a result. The oldest indisputable evidence of dogs being used for hunting comes from predynastic Egypt some 6ooo years ago, at least 6ooo years after the original domestication. The dogs depicted in the art of the period were almost indistinguishable from the modern Basenji, a breed still used for hunting in parts of central Africa. The fact that a special breed of hunting dog was already in existence at this time confirms that hunting was one of the earliest recorded economic functions of domestic dogs, but it does not tell us when the practice began or how widespread it was in Antiquity. The evidence from contemporary hunting societies is equally ambiguous. There are no wild canis species in South America, and man y of the hunting tribes’ southern part of the Amazon Basin never encountered dogs until the arrivals of Europeans. In man y cases, they regard dogs as useless or even dangerous but this attitude does not appear to affect their hunting success however in northern  Amazonia, Venezuela and Guyana,  the majority of Indians believe that they can hunt effectively only with canine assistance, and consequently they value good hunting dogs above most other possessions.

The same attitude is found in Australia. Aboriginal tribes in the arid interior used to keep dogs and tame Dingos in large numbers and evidently regarded them with affection, but they did not employ them for hunting, and the dogs apparently showed little inclination to participate. In contrast, the Aborigines of northeastern Australia used to capture and tame wild Dingo pups to assist them in hunting. According to the nineteenth-century Swedish explorer Lumholtz, these animals, though somewhat unreliable, were indispensable for hunting certain types of game. He described how a hunting Dingo 'sometimes refuses to go any farther and its owner has then to carry it on his shoulders, a luxury of which it is very fond'. Lumholtz's observations provide evidence that simple hunting societies were quite capable of taming and using wild dogs for hunting. Unfortunately, there is no way of knowing whether Paleolithic people made similar use of wild wolves. The Dingo itself is probably derived from domestic dogs brought to Australia thousands of years ago by settlers from South-East Asia. Although it has since reverted to a wild state, the tradition of using it for hunting may have survived intact from these early times.

Hunting with dogs is widespread among African hunter societies, such as the Pygmies of Zaire and Cameroon, the Dorobo of Kenya and the !Kung San Bushmen  of Botswana. The dogs are usually employed for hunting small antelope and warthog. The latter has an unusual defensive Strategy when pursued by carnivores it races to its burrow and reverses down it so that only the formidable bony head and tusks protrude from the entrance. In this position it is invulnerable to attack by most predators, but not to a combined assault by men and dogs hunting together. The dogs keep the warthog in situ until the hunters arrive to dispatch the animal with spears.

The introduction of hunting dogs around the turn of this century has revolutionized the basic economy of the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean. Formerly, the Andamese subsisted largely on shellfish, but by 1960 they had evolved a flourishing hunting economy based largely on the capture of wild pig. Like their warthog relatives, the wild pigs of Asia stand at bay to defend themselves when attacked; ordinarily, this tactic would drive off all but the largest packs of dogs, but when men and dogs hunt together the same behavior is virtually suicidal.

It would appear that the value of dogs as hunting aids depends on the local situation and the types of game. Certain species which tend to stand at bay or to take refuge in burrows or streams when pursued would stand little chance if hunted by dogs accompanied by humans. Other species which take to their heels and attempt to outdistance canine pursuers would probably have been unsuitable game. Stone Age dogs would either have become exhausted or would have left the hunters far behind.

Ancient Watch Dogs

Most domestic dogs bark when alarmed or excited, and some react to the slightest disturbance with a veritable storm of hysterical yapping. By comparison, the barking of wolves is subdued and infrequent, occurring only in moments of intense excitement or in response to threatening Intrusions, usually by other wolves, into the home range or territory. The difference in barking incidents between dogs and wolves is largely the product of genetic changes. It would seem that artificial selection by man has had the effect of reducing the level of stimulation needed to evoke defensive behavior in most domestic breeds. Deliberately or unconsciously dogs have been bred to overreact to suspected threats and, judging from the exaggerated responses of some breeds, the process of selection must have been intensive. Recent research by criminologists in Britain has shown that the sound of a barking dog inside a house remains one of the most effective defences against burglary.

Special breeds of guard dog have been in existence for thousands of years. The prosperous citizens of ancient Babylonia and Assyria kept large and reputedly savage Mastiffs to counteract urban crime. By way of encouragement, they were given suitably bellicose names such as Hesitate Not, Biter of the Adversary and Expeller of the Sinful. The same people had the habit of burying tiny terracotta figurines of Mastiffs under  the doorways of their houses, presumably as a kind of magical deterrent to evil spirits and burglars. Even earlier than this, dogs acquired a reputation as guardians of livestock. In Sumerian texts of about 5000 BC the dog-headed goddess Bau (whose name is probably derived from the sound of a dog's bark) was described as a protector of flocks. Similarly, the symbol of royalty in early dynastic Egypt, the so-called 'Sceptre of the Pharaohs', was a shepherd's crook, the handle of which was shaped like a dog's head. Early sheepdogs probably did little in the way of livestock herding, their primary role being as protectors of the flock from thieves and predators. Ironically, the principal antagonist in this respect was their own ancestor, the wolf. In parts of Europe and Asia where simple pastoral economies are maintained to this day, ancient breeds of flock-guarding sheepdogs are still in use. They include the Tibetan Mastiff, a notoriously ferocious breed from the Himalayas and Mongolia; the Komondor and Kuvasz from the plains of Hungary; the Bergomasco and Maremma from the mountains of ltaly, and the well-known Pyrenean Mountain Dog. All are large. Heavily built animals with thick coats to protect them from the elements; the fur is generally white, a color thought to be least alarming to sheep. Typically they are reared in close company with sheep so that they grow up regarding the members of the flock as social companions.

Although specialized guard dogs came into their own with the advent of prosperous urban civilizations, ordinary household dogs were probably valued as early-warning devices long before this. Hunting and nomadic peoples, Fearful of animal marauders (and malevolent spiritual beings), would appreciate the vigilance and alarmist behavior of their dogs. The dog's natural animosity towards strangers would also be a considerable asset during hostilities between neighboring groups.

Dogs as Scavengers

Throughout many of the poorer regions of the world, feral or stray dogs play an important role as urban scavengers. Some authorities have suggested that this useful habit may have been the original reason for domestication of the wolf. There is evidence for and against this suggestion. It is known that wolf domestication coincided with the first appearance of village settlements and with a relatively sudden increase in human population density. Both these circumstances would have resulted inevitably in the accumulation of organic waste in the vicinity of human habitation, and this, in turn, would have created potential health hazards.

Our ancestors stood to benefit from encouraging other species to clear up the mess, but humans have an almost universal aversion to scavenging animals of any kind. This attitude embraces not only wild animals, such as rats, jackals, hyenas and vultures, but also scavenging ng domestic dogs like the 'pariahs' which abound throughout Asia and North Africa. Animals which feed on carrion and ordure are commonly infected wi th various parasitic diseases, some of which can be transmitted to people through physical contact. The Islamic perception of dogs as 'unclean' may be a simple cultural device for keeping potential sources of infection at arm's length. The dog's ability to survive off the waste products of human culture has helped it to survive where it would otherwise have perished, but its scavenging behavior could have done little to improve its reputation.

What are Working Dogs ?

Since joining forces with humanity some I2, ooo-14, ooo years ago, dogs have altered dramatically not only in physical appearance but also in the variety of uses to which they have been put. At different times and in different localities, dogs have been employed for hunting and fishing, guarding and guiding, herding, and fighting, bull and bear-baiting, drawing sledges and travois, turning spits and detecting truffles and for racing and clowning. They have also been used as a source of meat, wool and companionship, as receptacles for waste disposal, as weapons of war and as objects of religious worship.

Few of these uses would have made sense to the people who first domesticated wolves. The number of useful roles which dogs can play in societies of subsistence hunters and gatherers is fairly limited, and the newly domesticated wolves of the late Paleolithic period would have been physically and temperamentally unsuited to many of the specialized tasks that their descendants perform so skillfully. nevertheless, the life styles of wolves and Stone Age humans shared much common ground; while tame wolves are neither particularly obedient nor easily trained, they are doubtless efficient at carrying out wolfish tasks, and some of these natural abilities and habits would have been potentially useful to their human masters.


Dogs as Scavengers
Ancient Watch Dogs
Dogs as Hunting Partners
Dogs as a Food Source
The Dog as Deity
Greyfriars Bobby
Dogs as Companions

Complex Inherited Traits in Dogs

Not all polygenic characters can be classified into grades; some, such as epilepsy, are all-or-nothing traits in that the dog is either normal or abnormal. Such traits, known as threshold traits, are difficult to work with but can respond to selection. Anyone purchasing a dog in a breed in which polygenic defects are common should ensure that parental stock are evaluated. It would, for example, be foolish to purchase breeds like German Shepherd Dogs, Labradors, Golden Retrievers or the giant breeds like Newfoundlands and St Bernards without seeking hip scores from the British Veterinary Association/German Shepherd Dog League or their equivalent in other countries.

A dog is acquired for its virtues rather than for its defects, but virtues are different things to different owners. Sound character is the most important trait of any dog whether i t is acquired as a family pet or as a potential show or working dog. In working breeds it should be possible to obtain a dog of sound character and working ability as well as beautiful looks, but in some breeds working and show strains have tended to diverge, polarizing in two quite different looking animals.

Most of the aspects governing so-called beauty, character and working ability are inherited. They are, with a few exceptions such as coat color, largely polygenic in their mode of control. The dog is the result of genetic make-up and environmental influences. The latter may start in the womb of the mother and be carried on throughout the first years of life. A black dog will be a black dog regardless of nutrition, but a genetically large dog will achieve its potential only if it is correctly reared. A dog of inherently sound character may end up aggressive or afraid of particular influences if it is not correctly socialized in puppy hood, and if the owner fails to establish a human pack order.

Dog Breeding Systems

The first stage of any breeding program is selecting the dog, the second deciding which dog to mate to which. Cross-breeding is the most effective for farm livestock, but dog-breeding is greatly influenced by pedigree. In pure breeding, mating is between unrelated animals of the same breed (out bred) or with closely related animals 'of the same breed (inbred). It is commonly but erroneously thought that all dog breeds are highly inbred, with consequent character failings. While a purebred animal is more inbred than a crossbred, not all purebreds are highly inbred. Taking o per cent as a totally out bred dog and 100 per cent as purely inbred (brother/sister matings for many generations), man y dog breeds would have average inbreeding levels of 4-5 per cent and below. In numerically small breeds, the levels may reach 12-14 per cent, equivalent to having the same grandparent on both sides of a pedigree.

Inbreeding is a powerful tool for fixing certain features and is almost always undertaken in the establishment of breeds of any species. However, it does bring to the surface hidden defects, usually recessive, and at high levels (in excess of zo-30 per cent) can bring about serious problems usually affecting viability  traits. Experiments with Beagles have shown  that  at extreme inbreeding levels some 75 per cent of all pups die before ten days old; high inbreeding in a Foxhound colony led to reduced litter size largely due to reduced sperm count in the males.Similar problems would be expected in other breeds. On the plus side, inbreeding can increase uniformity when combined with selection, and it has minimal effect on traits which are highly inherited in an additive fashion. However, inbreeding is best left to experienced breeders with knowledge of their breed and its pedigrees. Novice breeders often mate dogs on the evidence of their pedigrees, but this is an unwise policy: a pedigree is only as good as the dog which bears it.

Dog Breeding and selection

Polygenic characters tend to follow a pattern in which most individuals under study fall around the center or mean, with fewer at the two extremes. Taking wither height as an example, there are few really small animals of a particular breed and few really large ones, with most around the middle height. The number of genes which, with environmental influences, control height may be unknown, but selection can still be undertaken; many breeds have been altered or 'improved' without breeders knowing the number of genes involved.

A dog breeder seeking to improve or increase a particular trait must first identify those members of the dog breed which excel in that trait and then mate extreme examples.  Progress depends on two features. One, called  the selection differential, is the extent to which the selected group (parents) exceeds their population mean; the other, called the heritability, is the extent to which the character under examination is inherited in an additive fashion. If a trait is not highl y inherited, even intense selection will give little response; in contrast a highl y inherited trait will not be altered if minimal selection is made for it.

Most dog breeds have been altered over the years, some out of all recognition, such as the Bulldog, and at the same time new dog breeds,like the Rottweiler and the Dobermann, have been created. Selection for particular features under genetic control has been instrumental in both instances, and new breeds have involved cross-breeding followed by selection for a specific type. Not all selection has been desirable, and the show ring has encouraged exaggeration in some aspects. There is, for example, little doubt that selection for particular eye shapes has resulted in inturned eyelids (entropion) in some dog breeds like the Chow Chow and Bloodhound, and selection for broad heads in Boxers and Newfoundlands has resulted in additional incisor teeth in the upper jaws. Extra teeth may be a minor issue, but entropion is painful and necessitates surgery. Exaggerated shapes have led to spinal abnormalities in some dog breeds and to respiratory problems, heart disease, bone problems, etc., in others.

Altering one part of a dog may result in correlated changes in another part. Reducing wither height and body weight, for example, is likely to bring about a reduction in litter size. In general, but excluding giant breeds, there is a tendency for larger taller breeds to produce large litters, but for litter size to be associated positively with mortality.

Breeding of dogs should be done only after considerable study, and before attempting to change a breed by selection, the dog should be considered as a whole. Improving hip status is laudable, but if done in isolation it might result in retardation in other aspects.

Breeding Systems

Dog Disease - Hip dysplasia

Certain canine defects are inherited in a more complex manner by the joint action of man y genes together with environmental influences. Hip dysplasia, a defect also known in man, cattle and cats, is common in the dog. A n affected dog will be born with apparently normal hips, but as the dog becomes older the ball and socket joint of the hip ceases to fit properly. The inherited defect may vary from a mild case with no obvious ill effects to severe crippling.

The variation seen in hip status is controlled by many genes (polygenic) which act in an additive fashion: the more hip dysplasia genes a dog has, the worse will be its hip status. However, the action of some genes depends more on combinations of specific genes than on numbers, and environmental factors can have an adverse effect upon hip status. Rapid growth in earl y life and certain forms of exercise, in particular high jumping or scaling, can accelerate hip dysplasia. The condition is more prevalent in large breeds of dog and largely unknown in tiny breeds. However, there are great differences between breeds, and deliberate  attempts have been made to select against the condition. Estimates of the additive genetic component vary from 25 to 45 per cent, but they depend on the method of assessment, the breed and the country of study. In some European countries, notably Scandinavia and Switzerland, compulsory schemes have been introduced to fight hip dysplasia, while optional schemes exist in the United States and Britain. Methods of assessment rely upon X-rays of the hips taken after the age of one year (two years in the United States).  In some cou ntries hips are graded, usually into five different categories; the British Veterinary Association scores hip status numerically on a scale from o to 54, with lower scores being better.

Hemophilia

The X and Y chromosomes are known as the sex chromosomes, all others as autosomes. Genes carried on autosomes can occur in either sex, but genes carried on the sex chromosomes are transmitted in conjunction with sexual status. A gene carried on a Y chromosome could not appear in a female which only has XX. Few, if any, important genes are carried on the male, largely inert Y chromosome, but a major problem, hemophilia A, is found on the X chromosome. This disease, found in man as well as in the dog, is brought about by the failure of blood to clot or to clot quickly enough. It is the end product of a complex series of reactions, controlled by particular genes  or factors. Hemophilia A occurs when factor VIII is impaired.
All male offspring obtain their father's Y chromosome and all get one of their mother's X chromosomes. If she is a carrier of the defective Xh allele, male puppies will be hemophiliac and suffer in varying degrees from mild to severe symptoms. Man y will die of internal hemorrhaging.

All female offspring inherit their father's normal XH allele, but while half will get a normal XH from the mother, the other half will inherit the defective Xh and be carriers like their dams. In due course they will transmit hemophilia to their sons even when mated to quite innocent sires. Although sons carry only one Xh they  become  hemophiliac because there is no masking XH on the Y chromosome. Female offspring can theoretically become hemophiliac if a carrier female is mated to an affected male, but as a few such male survive to breeding age, and even fewer are breed from, the condition is rarely seen in bitches. Other inherited bleeding diseases are generally autosomal.

The Mendelian Laws

Basic laws governing biological inheritance in dogs were discovered in the 1860s by Gregor Mendel, the Austrian monk who gave his name to the principles which hold good to this day, though our understanding of the underlying mechanisms has altered. A particular gene controlling a specific function is always found at a particular point or locus on a certain chromosome. As the chromosomes come in pairs there can only be two of any particular gene in an animal, one on the chromosome from the sire and one from the dam. The gene at a locus may control a specific function, but differing versions (alleles) of the gene may influence this function. If a dog carries two identical alleles it is said to be homozygous at that locus; with two different alleles it is heterozygous. Some alleles are relatively powerful (dominant) and can influence the outward expression of a feature even when present on only one chromosome; others must be present on both chromosomes (recessive) to have any effect. In the science of genetics letters are used to distinguish genes, capitals indicating dominant genes and lower case recessive versions.

Many characteristics, particularly coat color, are inherited in a relatively simple fashion, others are more complex. Some genes act in apparent isolation, while others are influenced by the presence or absence of genes at some other locus. The B/ b series which determines black and chocolate coat color is influenced by the so-called extension series of which two versions, E and e, exist in the Labrador Retriever breed. The dominant E allows black pigment to form over the whole body, assuming the animal carries black, but the recessive allele e prevents it and causes pigment to be tan or yellow except on the nose and pads. Therefore, in order to be black, a dog requires not only the B allele but also at least one E allele. A BB dog which also carried EEwould have yellow coat color because the B series cannot function in EE presence of the the combination.

Genetics and Heredity Of Dogs

The body and organs of a dog are made up of millions of minute cells, each a nucleus containing small thread-like structures called chromosomes. These number seventy-eight, regardless of the breed, as they do in the wolf. Other species have different numbers of chromosomes.

The genes which influence the physical make-up, character, behaviour. health and well-being  of the dog are found on the chromosomes. They themselves are long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) linked in two strands rather like the sides of a ladder, with the rungs being chemical bases known as adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine. A gene is believed to be a portion of the double-stranded DNA, consisting of several hundred base pairs it is the arrangement of these base pairs which determines the action or potential action of that particular gene. A single chromosome may contain hundreds, even thousands of genes.

Genes have the ability to replicate themselves, effectively unchanged , and the ability to control or influence certain biochemical functions that bring about particular effects in the organism. All the genes in a particular cell do not necessarily function or they function at a certain stage of life only the consequences of such actions may be crucial to dog breeders.

It would be more accurate to speak of the seventy-eight chromosomes in the dog as thirty-nine pairs, since the actual units differ in size and shape, and two of each type can be located in a cell. A pair of chromosomes is called a homologous pair; one member of each pair comes from the sire and one member from the dam; therefore one half in each of the thirty-nine chromosome pairs was inherited from the father and the other half from the mother. One parent may appear to have been more influential than the other, but both will in reality have contributed equally to the genetic make-up of their offspring.

In males, one of the homologous pairs is unequal, being made u p of a large chromosome (called X) and a smaller one (called Y). This unequal XY set is the determinant of sex or rather of the male sex since females carry two paired X chromosomes. All females are thus XX and transmit only an X to all their offspring, while males are XY and can transmit either an X-in which case the offspring is female- or a Y- in which case a male progeny results.

During normal growth, cells multiply by one cell duplicating itself to become two, two becoming four, etc. When one cell becomes two by splitting each of the chromosomes into two identical ones, one set of seventy-eight goes to one end of the cell and the other set moves to the opposite end before splitting away to form the second cell. This process, known as mitosis, goes on constantly during  growth process. During the formation of germ cells (ova and sperm) a different process, known as meiosis, is needed if the chromosome number is to: X maintained in the species. At fertilization sperm - or ova - are formed with onl y one member of each homologous pair of thirty-nine chromosomes in each sperm (or ovum), resulting in a zygote (fertilized egg) with the correct seventy eight chromosomes.

The Mendelian Laws

Hemophilia

Hip dysplasia

Complex Inherited Traits

Evolution and Development of the Domestic Dog

The origin of the domestic dog has long been the subject of controversy. It is difficult to believe that dog breeds as different as Pugs and Greyhounds, Chihuahuas and St Bernads are all descended from a single common ancestor. Even Charles Darwin, father of modern evolutionary theory, was as bemused by the sheer variety of domestic dog breeds that he readily accepted the idea of a mixed descent from several different wild species. During the 1950s the Australian ethnologist Konrad Lorenz narrowed the field of arguing that all dog breeds could be divided into two parts, one derived primarily from the Wolf (Canies Lopes) and from the other primarily from the golden jackal (Canis aureus). Other authorities rejected both the jackals and Wolf as possible progenitors and proposed instead a hypothetical Wild-Dog ancestor (canis ferus) which has since become extinct.

Today the result has become considerably clearer as the result of much careful research. Detailed study of anatomy has virtually eliminated the golden Jackal from anything but a minor contribution of Canine ancestry; the bones of its Skull and the size and structure of its teeth differ markedly from those of the dog in contrast, the skull and the tooth remains of early domestic Dogs have been found to be a similar to and, nearly identical to those of small Wolves.

Research on comparative behavior patterns has also provided convincing evidence of Wolf ancestry. In one study it was found that of a total of ninety different behavior patterns recorded in domestic dogs, only nineteen were absent in Wolfs and those missing were all competitively minor activities which probably do occur in Wolves but have never actually been observed but now in dogs arose in special hunting context which domestic dogs do not normally encounter. Based on available evidence it is probable that all modern dog breeds are indeed descended from the Wolf most probably one of the smaller subspecies which today inhabit parts of south Asia.

Canis Ferus, the hypothetical Wild ancestor proposed by some authorities never gained many adherents, mainly because no fossil remains have ever been unearthed to confirm its existence. Indeed the invention of this apparently mythical beast as an alternative to the wolf and jackal may have arisen largely from prejudice. Since time immemorial, Europeans have traditionally, and erroneously, regarded jackals as miserable, cowardly scavengers, and the unfortunate Wolf has been unfairly branded as a symbol of diabolical cunning and ferocity-the proverbial bane of innocent little girls in red riding hoods.

The First Domestication:
The earliest domestication of the wolf probably took place in southern Europe or Asia Minor. A fragment of jawbone recovered from a Paleolithic in west Germany and thought to be 1400 years old may prove to be the oldest known remain for domestic dog. This Jaw is relatively short compared to that of the wolf and consequently the teeth are more crowded together. Both these attributes are typically of early dogs and probably reflect changes in the quality of the animal’s diet as a result of domestication. Other important finds include bone fragments from Iraq and the entire skeleton of a four to five month old puppy which was buried together with its human owner some 12000 years ago in northern Israel. These and other discoveries indicate that the wolf was domesticated before any animal species.

Although no record has survived of the precise events which led to the eventual domestication of Wolves a verity of imaginative reconstruction have been written on the subject. Most of this domestication as the deliberate outcome of human ingenuity: our ancestors perceived the optional value of wolves for hunting and guarding. For scavenging or for consumption and therefore took the necessary steps towards domesticating them. There is little evidence that our prehistoric forebears were gifted with such insight and it is more likely that the enduring partnership between man and beast was initially the product of chance rather than design.

The people unabated Europe and near East during the Paleolithic period (14000 to 12000 years ago) lived entirely by hunting and foraging for food on a day to day basis. Such pets are generally baby birds or mammals brought home alive from hunting forays and usually adopted by the women in the settlement who may suckle young mammals at the breast like orphaned children. At this stage a adopted animal requires a special status within the community it may be given a personal name or treated like a member of the family and when it dies it may be mourned and buried formally. Ordinarily the killing and eating of such pets is taboo.

Aboriginal pet:
keeping of this type is no matter understood than the pet-keeping in western societies However it is thought to originate from so called cute response the almost reflex protective and parental reaction that human and animal infants seem to excite in most adult. whatever its origin and function the pet keeping tendency probably played a major part in the process of Wolf domestication during the first few months of their lives Wolf pups are as appealing or cute as a dog pups and it is more than likely that our stone age ancestors occasionally succumbed to their charms and made their pets of these animals. The widespread belief that Wolves are utterly savage and un tamable is entirely erroneous.

A pet female Wolf during Paleolithic might have owned it’s primarily allegiance to humans, but would also have been capable of responding in a normal social and sexual manner to wild wolves it encountered near its human foster settlement. Provided in mated successfully with a male of the same species such a Wolf could at least in theory become the ancestor of a domestic line. One possible explanation is that Wolves were already predisposed to life in partnership with humans.

A bond of Similarity:
Like human hunting and forgetting society’s wolves packs are generally small containing an average from ten to twenty closely related individuals. These packs also specialize in the cooperative hunting of large game animals, as did our ancestors at the time wolf domestication. Life within closely Knit social groups of this kind depends upon a relatively sophisticated system of communication and a high level of mutual understanding between group members. Through a constant exchange of signals individuals express their intention and emotional states to others serious conflict is thereby avoided, and the groups are able to function as a single co-operative unit. The wolf has only a limited range of vocal signals, but nevertheless among this most visually expressive of all canids, able to convey a wide range of clear and unambiguous message through subtle change in its attitude posture and facial expressions. Much of human communication is also in the level of non-verbal signal and in a sense the two species possess a common language of gustier and nuance which can be used as basis for a co-operative relationship.

These then were the basic ingredients for a recipe which culminated in wolf domestication
1: Human pet keeping tendencies or more precisely the human habit of generalizing social and parental responses to include member of other species.
2: The natural amiability of young wolves and other and other willingness to accept human domination
3: The extra ordinary behavioral and ecological similarities between wolves and hunting peoples which enable these two species to live harmoniously together.

Gradually through trial and error domestic wolves acquired special important economic functions such as hunting and guarding within human society but it is unlikely that such practices consideration played any major part in their original domestication.

Dog Disease - Veterinary dental treatments

Veterinary dental treatments are more important in case your dog is suffering from dental problems. If the dental structures are not being looked after carefully, there are more chances for the development of periodontal diseases in dogs.  Hence, the veterinary dental treatments need to be paid maximum importance during the life of your dogs. Paying special attention to the dental hygiene of your dog will help you maintain your dog's health and prevent teeth and gum related dog disease in your pet. Good dental health of your pet also allows it to have a healthy lifestyle and prevent other non related dog disease from affecting your dog.

There are many advanced systems that deal with dental treatments that have come up in the vet market due to advancement in pet health sciences. Many systems are available with built in water spray systems, double filter systems, auto clavable clips, and more. Many veterinarians use high speed fiber optic hand pieces with push button turbines, two hand piece water jet systems, soundless water compressors and more to treat denatl health issues in dogs. The diagnosis of a condition pertaining to the periodontal structure based diseases are more important before the treatment.

Periodontal dog diseases are graded into minimal and moderate and severe diseases.  Accordingly the therapy is carried out, it is impossible to check all teeth by basic oral examination in the dog patient.  Hence, general anesthesia is required before the examination of the teeth inside structures.  Surgical curettage is done in case of advanced periodontal dog diseases using flaps and the teeth extractions are also carried out using moderate force and more care is taken to avoid the continuous bleeding. 

Oral surgeries are undertaken after obtaining of the dental radio graphs in the dogs and by comparing the tissue damage with normal teeth structures.  The concerned veterinarians assess the extent of damage in a systematic manner.

The periodontal dog disease are controlled by administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics in an effective manner.  Along with the dental surgeries, the oral treatment is done with many products that are helpful to prevent the attachment of the tartar or plaque on the teeth. However, reputable products should be used in the veterinary practice and the dog owner’s satisfaction is given more priority during the veterinary dental therapy.

Dog Disease - Preventing dental Dog Disease

Dental dog disease can cause a lot of other health problems in dogs. Preventing dental disease is an important thing to do for all dog owners, dental health should be paid more emphasis by the dog lovers or dog owners. Dental disease is given priority in the health schedule of the dog nowadays because of the association of the dental diseases with systemic diseases in the dogs.

Antibiotics need to be given in the initial stage of teeth infection itself and if not, this may cause specific infections and the organisms may spread to the other nearby regions like the oral mucous membrane and pharyngeal region etc.

More acidic or alkaline food materials need not be given to the dogs to avoid the possible teeth damage. Antibiotics need to be given in the initial stage of teeth infection itself and if not, this may cause specific infections and the organisms may spread to the other nearby regions like the oral mucous membrane and pharyngeal region etc. More acidic or alkaline food materials need not be given to the dogs to avoid the possible teeth damage. If the dog is not given at its young age some bony material to bite on, the dog may develop some dental diseases later. The teething action often causes the animal to go for biting in an indiscriminate manner. Hence, the animal has to be given some biting materials to avoid the occurrence of dental diseases.

If there is an evidence of bleeding from the oral region, the dog needs to be examined thoroughly for any dental abnormality. Mainly the puppies or some times, the adult dogs also may have teeth injuries. They need to be attended immediately as a preventive step. If not, the animal may end up in secondary bacterial infections.

Hunting dogs need additional care associated with the dental structures and such care is needed to avoid the future dental problems in such dogs. Brushes are available to provide better dental care to dogs. However, one has to allot more time and should have patience to use such brushes in case of dogs. This may lead into further problems. Centers for disease control and prevention are trying to put up guidelines to prevent the dental diseases in dogs in many nations. However, the oral examination needs to be carried out frequently in dogs and such activities help to rule out the emerging problems pertaining to the dentin structures in the beginning itself.

Great dental health in dogs leads to preventing dog disease in dogs that can be the side effects of bad dental health. Make sure your dog's dental health is at its optimum level to prevent further problems with your dog.

Dog Disease - Dog Identification Tags

Due to dogs getting lost or killed in road accidents and to reduce the number of stray dogs on the streets it is recommended that you should find ways to identify your dog. Dog identification is highly recommended these days because of the need for the licensing of the dog in a proper manner and to reduce the numbers of the stray dog in streets.  Dog identification is done by many methods, which are different from each other. Depending on your budget you can find many ways to identify your dog. If your dog is not identifiable it might end up in a dog pound because of animal licensing issues in your area.

The identification of your pet may be done by personalized tags, some times by the municipal license tag, medical tags to identify dog disease in the dog, and more. Most of the time, your telephone number and your name will be on a place in the personalized tags of the dogs.  If any body encounters the dog accidentally during the event of missing of the dog will become capable of reporting the facts to the concerned officials.

Plastic and metal pet identification tags are available in multiple colors and the dog owners can choose the color they want. However, many select the reflective type of dog tags along with the collars.  Hence, the dogs can be identified even in darkness to a greater extent.

Nowadays, many electronic gadgets are available like microchips which are embedded into the dog. However, these kinds of electronic chips need to be implanted behind the ears and once implanted, this will reveal all the data embedded in this in the computer.  A collard and tagged animal makes an indication that it is not a stray animal and this gives more security to the dog.

Traditional forms of identification of the animal like tattooing is now a day not carried in dogs because these can cause dog disease like skin problems. Modern dog tags and tagging techniques make it tracing the missed animal will become easier for the pet owners mainly due to the identification-based dog collars.

Dog Disease - Dog health insurance

 

Dog health insurance is highly recommended nowadays because of the escalating cost factors pertaining to the health maintenance in dogs when dogs are suffering from Dog Disease.  Dog owners need to find dog insurance firms that settle dues to the dog owners without delay and in an appropriate manner.  Dog health insurance firms recently come forward to settle the dues in a proper manner after the due verification of the claim.  If anything happens, dog care costs can add up without insurance.

Make sure you get insurance for dog disease from an approved list of your local animal care hospitals.  Even have the list of veterinary experts who are specialized in dog’s health care and disease management measures.  Many firms cover up the cost made towards undertaking of surgeries, radio graphic examinations, treatment of specific conditions, laboratory fees towards undertaking of various laboratory examinations, and more. There is a weighting period before the approval of your policy by most of the insurance firms after the enrolling from you so it's good to start early.

If you don’t like the insurance firm, at any time, you can cancel the insurance policy when you are not satisfied with the companies performance.  A licensed veterinarian list should be available with all insurance firms. Many payment options are available for the pet owners to make it convenient to buy dog insurance and not have to suffer heavy costs to treat your pet for the several dog disease that affect dogs.

It is better to enroll the dogs or other pets before they become adults. The animals when they are young need to be enrolled as a priority.It is always better to the consumers who are the dog owners. Before the dogs have any illness, accidents, or get into the pre-existing conditions as quoted by many pet health insurance firms, insurance coverage needs to be entered by the dog owners.  The medical history of your dog will be subjected to the full review by the insurance firms, so start soon before your dog suffers from any dog disease that make it impossible or very expensive for you to insure your pet.

Dog Disease - Dental Hygene to prevent Dog Disease

Dental hygiene of dogs is very important because neglecting the dental health of your pet can cause the dog to become sick. Even if you are giving home dental care and making sure that your dog's dental hygiene is excellent, if you suspect on the extension of the dental diseases, then immediately consult a vet to solve the problem before your dog suffers from further dog disease..  

Give your pet bone materials without very sharp points to the dogs and they will love to chew these bones and then swallow the bitten products. This activity help dogs in the development of strong teeth structures in a natural manner.
   
Mind that the breeds of dogs like Pekingese, etc. are more prone for the development of teeth diseases because the teeth are closely crowned in the oral cavity be to the small size of the these dogs. Hence, these dogs need to be checked up for the excessive plaque formation at home itself always remember dental hygene prevents dog disease.
   
Recreational raw beef bones are wonderful materials to keep the teeth structures of your dog clean and free from formation of plaque with build up of bacterial organisms.  Teeth brushes are available for use with care in case of dogs and one has to be careful during the usage of these brushes in dogs. Teeth brushes are to be used with special kinds of pastes recommended by the veterinarians for home use in case of dogs. 

Specially prepared food materials are available in the pet shops to remove the tartar and the plaque materials from the teeth structures. Dry dog food and toys that are specially made to add strength to the teeth structures are often used at home for better teeth cleaning.  

The plaque materials are intermittently to be removed at home to avoid any occurrence of the periodontal diseases, which are more common among the dogs.  Dental wipes are available in the pet shops and they may be used carefully in the home.  This helps to remove more plaque and the tartar like materials that are loosely attached.

Keeping your dog's dental hygiene in check will make sure that your dog is avoiding other dog disease that can affect a pet due to bad dental hygiene.

Dog Disease - Vaccination to Prevent Dog Disease

It is important that dog owners understand the vaccination process for their dogs. Everyone wants to know whether a dog needs to be vaccinated in its first week after birth. It is important to know that even if a dog is not vaccinated for dog disease in the first week after birth vaccinations can be done till six weeks of age. Even then if vaccination is not given vaccine for parvoviral infections used to kill viral vaccines and measles disease can be given after that period as well.

Dog owners should know that bordetella disease vaccine and lyme disease vaccine are not required vaccines for a dog to prevent dog disease. These vaccines are only optional and it is up to dog owners to protect their dogs against these dog disease.Another important thing to know is if parvoviral vaccine can be used in first week of life? The answer to this is No. This will interfere with maternal antibody levels.

Some dog owners are not sure if a pregnant animal can be vaccinate or not. Two to three weeks earlier to pregnancy activity that is expected, the pregnant animal may be vaccinated against viral diseases. This helps to provide maternal antibodies to the young one to be given birth.


Rabies vaccine is a must to be given to dogs to prevent rabies dog disease in your pet.When giving the anti rabies vaccine there are certain precautions that need to be taken.Rabies vaccine is given at age of thirteen to fifteen weeks of age and should to be repeated in fifteen months and then once in three years.  It is important that the dog is given this vaccine to prevent a very common dog disease in your dog.

Another important vaccine for the dog to prevent dog disease is Canine Distemper vaccination.This disease is geographically more prevalent in some areas, so dogs living in high risk areas should definitely be vaccinated against this dog disease.

There is also vaccination available to prevent leptospirosis dog disease in dogs. This vaccination is given between the age of 6 to 8 weeks and it is again administered at 10 to 12 week and once again at 13 to 16 weeks.

Vaccinating your dog against these dog diseases is a very important thing for the well being of your pet. Be sure to keep your dog's vaccination up to date at all times.